Analysis and Outlook on the Key Problems of Electric Vehicle and Power Grid Interaction

doi:10.3969/j.issn.1000-7229.2015.07.001

Abstract

Abstract:

Vehicle-to-Grid （V2G） technology can provide various supports for the operation of power system, such as peak shaving, frequency regulation and reserve, etc. The realization of V2G can significantly contribute to the secure operation of power systems and facilitate the renewable energy integration. This paper primarily focuses on analyzing control technologies, market mechanisms and infrastructure issues of V2G. First, this paper analyses the architecture and control targets of V2G. Secondly, different control strategies are investigated under the centralized, distributed and hierarchical control frameworks for V2G. Thirdly, we summarize the cost-benefit, business model and market mechanism of V2G with policy recommendations and further discuss the infrastructure needed and communication standard for V2G. Finally, the future directions for V2G research and applications are briefly given.

Key words: electric vehicle, market mechanism, control strategy, vehicle-to-grid （V2G）, smart grid

CLC Number:

TM 72

HU Zechun, ZHAN Kaiqiao, XU Zhiwei, XIANG Ding, ZHANG Hongcai. Analysis and Outlook on the Key Problems of Electric Vehicle and Power Grid Interaction[J]. ELECTRIC POWER CONSTRUCTION, 2015, 36(7): 6-13.

References

［1］Kempton W，Letendre S E．Electric vehicles as a new power source for electric utilities［J］. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 1997, 2（3）:157-175．
［2］Liu Hui, Hu Zechun, Song Yonghua, et al. Decentralized vehicle-to-grid control for primary frequency regulation considering charging demands［J］. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2013, 28（3）: 3480-3489.
［3］Han Sekyung，Han Soohee，Sezaki K．Development of an optimal vehicle-to-grid aggregator for frequency regulation［J］．IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid，2010，1（1）：65-72.
［4］Keane E, Flynn D. Potential for electric vehicles to provide power system reserve［C］// Innovative Smart Grid Technologies （ISGT）, Washington DC: IEEE PES，2012：1-7.
［5］Xu Zhiwei, Su Wencong, Hu Zechun, et al. A hierarchical framework for coordinated charging of plug-in electric vehicles in China［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2015（in press）.
［6］曹一家, 谭益, 黎灿兵, 等. 具有反向放电能力的电动汽车充电设施入网典型方案［J］. 电力系统自动化, 2011, 35（14）:48-52.
Cao Yijia, Tan Yi, Li Canbing, et al. Typical schemes of electric vehicle charging infrastructure connected to grid［J］. Automation of Electric Power Systems, 2011, 35（14）:48-52.
［7］Ortega-Vazquez M A, Bouffard F, Silva V. Electric vehicle aggregator/system operator coordination for charging scheduling and services procurement［J］. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2013, 28（2）:1806-1815.
［8］李正烁, 郭庆来, 孙宏斌, 等. 计及电动汽车充电预测的实时充电优化方法［J］. 电力系统自动化, 2014, 38（9）:61-68.
Li Zhengshuo, Guo Qinglai, Sun Hongbin, et al. Real-time charging optimization method considering vehicle charging prediction［J］. Automation of Electric Power Systems, 2014, 38（9）:61-68.
［9］Zheng J, Wang X, Men K, et al. Aggregation model-based optimization for electric vehicle charging strategy［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2013, 4（2）:1058-1066.
［10］田文奇, 和敬涵, 姜久春, 等. 基于自适应变异粒子群算法的电动汽车换电池站充电调度多目标优化［J］. 电网技术, 2012, 36（11）:25-29.
Tian Wenqi, He Jinghan, Jiang Yongchun, et al. Multi-objective optimization of charging dispatching for electric vehicle battery swapping station based on adaptive mutation particle swarm optimization［J］. Power System Technology, 2012, 36（11）:25-29.
［11］孙波, 廖强强, 谢品杰, 等. 车电互联削峰填谷的经济成本效益分析［J］. 电网技术, 2012, 36（10）:30-34.
Sun Bo, Liao Qiangqiang, Xie Pinjie, et al. A cost-benefit analysis model of vehicle-to-grid for peak shaving［J］. Power System Technology, 2012, 36（10）:30-34.
［12］Al-Awami A T, Sortomme E. Coordinating vehicle-to-grid services with energy trading［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2012, 3（1）:453-462.
［13］于大洋, 黄海丽, 雷鸣, 等. 电动汽车充电与风电协同调度的碳减排效益分析［J］. 电力系统自动化, 2012, 36（10）:14-18.
Yu Dayang, Huang Haili, Lei Ming, et al. CO2 reduction benefit by coordinated dispatch of electric vehicle charging and wind power［J］. Automation of Electric Power Systems, 2012, 36（10）:14-18.
［14］Vagropoulos S I, Bakirtzis A G. Optimal bidding strategy for electric vehicle aggregators in electricity markets［J］. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2013, 28（4）: 4031-4041.
［15］Sortomme E, El-Sharkawi M A. Optimal combined bidding of vehicle-to-grid ancillary services［J］ IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2012, 3（1）: 70-79.
［16］Clement-Nyns K，Haesen E，Driesen J．The impact of charging plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on a residential distribution grid［J］．IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2010, 25（1）: 371-380．
［17］Masoum A S, Deilami S, Moses P S, et al. Smart load management of plug-in electric vehicles in distribution and residential networks with charging stations for peak shaving and loss minimization considering voltage regulation［J］. IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution, 2011, 5（8）:877-888.
［18］Deilami S, Masoum A S, Moses P S, et al. Real-time coordination of plug-in electric vehicle charging in smart grids to minimize power losses and improve voltage profile［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2011, 2（3）: 456-467.
［19］Zhou Lin, Li Furong, Gu Chenghong, et al. Cost/benefit assessment of a smart distribution system with intelligent electric vehicle charging［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2014, 5（2）:839-847.
［20］吴红斌, 郭彩云. 计及电动汽车的分布式发电系统中储能单元的优化配置［J］. 中国电机工程学报, 2012, 32（S1）:15-21.
Wu Hongbin, Guo Caiyun. Capacity optimization of energy storage unit in distribution generation system considering electric vehicle［J］. Proceedings of the CSEE, 2012, 32（S1）:15-21.
［21］茆美琴, 孙树娟, 苏建徽. 包含电动汽车的风/光/储微电网经济性分析［J］. 电力系统自动化, 2011, 35（14）:30-35.
Mao Meiqin, Sun Shujuan, Su Jianhui. Economic analysis of a microgrid with wind/photovoltaic/storages and electric vehicles［J］. Automation of Electric Power Systems, 2011, 35（14）:30-35.
［22］Rogers K M，Klump R，Khurana H，et al．An authenticated control framework for distributed voltage support on the smart grid［J］．IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2010, 1（1）: 40-47．
［23］Gan L, Topcu U, Low S. Optimal decentralized protocol for electric vehicle charging［J］. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2013, 28（2）: 940-951.
［24］Ma Z, Callaway D, Hiskens I. Decentralized charging control of large populations of plug-in electric vehicles［J］. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, 2013, 21（1）: 67-78.
［25］徐智威, 胡泽春, 宋永华, 等. 充电站内电动汽车有序充电策略［J］. 电力系统自动化, 2012, 36（11）:38-43.
Xu Zhiwei, Hu Zechun, Song Yonghua, et al. Coordinated charging of plug-in electric vehicles in charging stations［J］. Automation of Electric Power Systems, 2012, 36（11）:38-43.
［26］苗轶群. 含电动汽车及换电站的微网优化调度研究［D］. 杭州：浙江大学, 2012.
Miao Yiqun. Optimal dispatch for microgrid with electric vehicles and battery swap station［D］. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University, 2012.
［27］张舒, 胡泽春, 宋永华, 等. 考虑电动汽车换电站与电网互动的机组组合问题研究［J］. 中国电机工程学报, 2012, 32（10）:8+49-55.
Zhang Shu, Hu Zechun, Song Yonghua, et al. Research on unit commitment considering interaction between battery swapping station and power grid［J］. Proceedings of the CSEE, 2012, 32（10）: 8+49-55.
［28］Luo X, Chan K W. Real-time scheduling of electric vehicles charging in low-voltage residential distribution systems to minimise power losses and improve voltage profile［J］. IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution, 2014, 8（3）:516-529.
［29］占恺峤, 宋永华, 胡泽春, 等. 以降损为目标的电动汽车有序充电优化［J］. 中国电机工程学报, 2012, 32（31）:11-18+213.
Zhan Kaiqiao, Song Yonghua, Hu Zechun, et al. Coordination of electric vehicles charging to minimize active power losses［J］. Proceedings of the CSEE, 2012, 32（31）:11-18+213.
［30］Papadaskalopoulos D, Strbac G. Decentralized participation of flexible demand in electricity markets part I: Market mechanism［J］. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 2013, 28（4）:3658-3666.
［31］Papadaskalopoulos D, Strbac G, Mancarella P, et al. Decentralized participation of flexible demand in electricity markets part II: Application with electric vehicles and heat pump systems［J］. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2013, 28（4）:3667-3674.
［32］Ito H. Disturbance and delay robustness guarantees of gradient systems based on static noncooperative games with an application to feedback control for PEV charging load allocation［J］. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, 2013, 21（4）:1374-1385.
［33］Zhan Kaiqiao, Hu Zechun, Song Yonghua, et al. A probability transition matrix based decentralized electric vehicle charging method for load valley filling［J］. Electric Power Systems Research, 2015（125）:1-7.
［34］Chen N, Tan C, Quek T. Electric vehicle charging in smart grid: Optimality and valley-filling algorithms［J］. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Signal Processing, 2014, 8（6）:1073-1083.
［35］Ma Z, Callaway D S, Hiskens I A. Decentralized charging control for large populations of plug-in electric vehicles［C］ // Proceedings of IEEE Conference on Decision and Control. IEEE, 2010:206-212.
［36］Ghavami A, Kar K, Bhattacharya S, et al. Price-driven charging of plug-in electric vehicles: Nash equilibrium, social optimality and best-response convergence［C］ // Proceedings of Conference on Information Sciences and Systems, 2013:1-6.
［37］Yang H, Chung C Y, Zhao J. Application of plug-in electric vehicles to frequency regulation based on distributed signal acquisition via limited communication ［J］. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 2013, 28（2）:1017-1026.
［38］Liu H, Hu Z, Song Y, et al. Decentralized vehicle-to-grid control for primary frequency regulation considering charging demands ［J］. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, 2013, 28（3）:3480-3489.
［39］Chang T, Alizadeh M, Scaglione A. Real-time power balancing via decentralized coordinated home energy scheduling［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2013, 4（3）:1490-1504.
［40］Cao Y, Tang S, Li C, et al. An optimized EV charging model considering TOU price and SOC curve［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2012, 3（1）:388-393.
［41］Gharesifard B, Basar T, Dominguez-Garcia A D. Price-based distributed control for networked plug-in electric vehicles［C］// Proceedings of American Control Conference, 2013:5086-5091.
［42］Xi X, Sioshansi R. Using price-based signals to control plug-in electric vehicle fleet charging［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2014, 5（3）:1451-1464.
［43］Xu Zhiwei, Hu Zechun, Song Yonghua, et al. Coordination of PEVs charging across multiple aggregators［J］, Applied Energy, 2014, 136:582-589.
［44］Kempton W, Tomic J. Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals: Calculating capacity and net revenue［J］. Journal of Power Sources, 2005, 144（1）: 268-279.
［45］Dallinger D, Krampe D, Wietschel M. Vehicle-to-grid regulation reserves based on a dynamic simulation of mobility behavior［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2011, 2（2）: 302-313.
［46］Tomic J, Kempton W. Using fleets of electric-drive vehicles for grid support［J］. Journal of Power Sources, 2007, 168（2）: 459-468.
［47］Larsen E, Chandrashekhara D K, Ostergard J. Electric vehicles for improved operation of power systems with high wind power penetration［C］//IEEE Energy 2030 Conference （ENERGY 2008）. IEEE, 2008:1-6.
［48］Hutson C, Venayagamoorthy G K, Corzine K A. Intelligent scheduling of hybrid and electric vehicle storage capacity in a parking lot for profit maximization in grid power transactions［C］// IEEE Energy 2030 Conference （ENERGY 2008）. IEEE, 2008:1-8.
［49］Ghofrani M, Arabali A, Etezadi-Amoli M, et al. Smart scheduling and cost-benefit analysis of grid-enabled electric vehicles for wind power integration［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2014, 5（5）: 2306-2313.
［50］罗卓伟. 电动汽车充电负荷建模及充放电优化的成本效益分析［D］. 北京：清华大学，2012.
Luo Zhuowei. Research on modeling and method and the benefit of coordination of large scale plug-in electric vehicles in power grids［D］. Beijing: Tsinghua University, 2012.
［51］项顶，宋永华，胡泽春，等，电动汽车参与V2G的最优峰谷电价研究［J］. 中国电机工程学报, 2013, 33（31）: 15-25.
Xiang Ding, Song Yonghua, Hu Zechun, et al. Research on optimal time of use price for electric vehicle participating V2G［J］. Proceedings of the CSEE, 2013, 33（31）: 15-25.
［52］孙波，施泉生, 电动汽车入网的放电电价定价模型分析［J］. 华东电力, 2011, 39（7）: 1029-1032.
Sun Bo, Shi Quansheng, Analysis on discharge pricing model for vehicle-to-grid［J］. East China Electric Power, 2011, 39（7）: 1029-1032.
［53］高亚静，吕蒙扩，王球，等，基于离散吸引力模型的电动汽车充放电最优分时电价研究［J］. 中国电机工程学报, 2014, 34（22）: 3647-3653.
Gao Yajing, Lv Mengkuo, Wang Qiu, et al. Research on optimal TOU price considering electric vehicles charging and discharging based on discrete attractive model［J］. Proceedings of the CSEE, 2014, 34（22）: 3647-3653.
［54］杨甲甲，赵俊华，文福拴，等. 含电动汽车和风电机组的虚拟发电厂竞价策略［J］. 电力系统自动化, 2014, 38（13）: 92-102.
Yang Jiajia, Zhao Junhua, Wen Fushuan, et al. Development of bidding strategies for virtual power plants considering uncertain outputs from plug-in electric vehicles and wind generators［J］. Automation of Electric Power System, 2014, 38（13）: 93-102.
［55］Wu C Y, Mohsenian-Rad H, Huang J W. Vehicle-to-aggregator interaction game［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2012, 3（1）, 434-442.
［56］Bessa R J, Matos M A. The role of an aggregator agent for EV in the electricity market［C］// Proceedings of the 7th Mediterranean Conference and Exhibition on Power Generation, Transmission, Distribution and Energy Conversion （MedPower 2010）. IET, 2010: 126.
［57］Hidrue M K, Parsons G R，Kempton W，et al. Willingness to pay for electric vehicles and their attributes［J］. Resource and Energy Economics, 2011, 33（3）: 686-705.
［58］Parsons G R, Hidrue M K, Kempton W, et al. Can vehicle-to-grid revenue help electric vehicles on the market?［J］. Working Papers, 2011, 66（1）:33-51.
［59］PACS-L：State of Delaware 145th General Assembly Senate Bill # 153. ［EB/OL］. Delaware：Delaware Government［2015-05-30］.http://phoenix.state.de.us/LIS/lis145.nsf/vwLegislation/SB+153/$file/0361450247.doc?open.
［60］PACS-L：Nuvve brings V2G network to Denmark. ［EB/OL］. London：BusinessGreen，2011［2015-05-30］.
http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2082051/nuvve-brings-v2g-network-denmark.
［61］PACS-L：Electric Vehicles Start Selling Power Into PJM. ［EB/OL］. San Diego：Greentechmedia［2015-05-30］.http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/electric-vehicles-start-selling-power-into-pjm.
［62］PACS-L：2014年全球电动汽车行业十大预测. ［EB/OL］. 北京：第一电动网［2015-05-30］. http://www.d1ev.com/29376.html.
［63］NISSAN. “LEAF to Home” Electricity Supply System， http://www.nissan-global.com/EN/TECHNOLOGY/OVERVIEW/leaf_to_home.html.
［64］虎嗅网.未来日本汽车将成为“移动发电站”［2015-05-30］.http://wwww.huxiu.com/article/100619/1.html.
［65］周纯粼.全球五大电动车充电连接器标准详解［2015-05-30］.http://auto.qq.com/a/20150205/030258.htm.
［66］SAE. Vehicle Electrification Standards［2015-05-30］.http://www.sae.org/standardsdev/vehicleelectrification.htm.
［67］Andrew Nusca. IEEE, SAE partner on smart grid, electric vehicle standards［2015-05-30］.http://www.zdnet.com/article/ieee-sae-partner-on-smart-grid-electric-vehicle-standards/.
［68］ISO 15118—1:2013. Road vehicles — Vehicle to grid communication interface — Part 1: General information and use-case definition［S］.
［69］ISO 15118—2:2014. Road vehicles — Vehicle-to-Grid Communication Interface — Part 2: Network and application protocol requirements［S］.
［70］ISO 15118—3:2015. Road vehicles — Vehicle to grid communication interface — Part 3: Physical and data link layer requirements［S］.
［71］Ustun T S, Ozansoy C R, Zayegh A. Implementing vehicle-to-grid （V2G） technology with IEC 61850-7-420［J］. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 2013, 4（2）: 1180-1187.

[1]	ZHANG Weiguo, CHEN Liangliang, CHENG Haisheng, FU Rong, JI Juan. Elastic Load Scheduling Based on Awareness of Electric Vehicle Power Supply Resources [J]. ELECTRIC POWER CONSTRUCTION, 2020, 41(8): 48-56.
[2]	WU Dingjie, LI Xiaolu. Charging Load Prediction of Electric Vehicle According to Real-Time Travel Demand and Traffic Conditions [J]. ELECTRIC POWER CONSTRUCTION, 2020, 41(8): 57-67.
[3]	TAN Zhongfu，TAN Caixia，PU Lei，YANG Jiacheng. Two-Layer Game Model of Virtual Power Plant Applying CIQPSO Algorithm [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(6): 9-17.
[4]	HU Jue， WEI Gang， YUAN Hongtao， LUO Zhigang. Modeling of EV Charging-Swapping-Storage Integrated Station [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(6): 44-51.
[5]	LIU Hui， XIE Liangfeng， XIE Haimin， YANG Yude， QIN Zhijun. Network Loss Evaluation of Power Systems Considering Participation of Electric Vehicles in AGC [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(6): 52-59.
[6]	SHEN Baoxing1， LIN Lin1， DONG Qian2， TANG Cong3， JIANG Shouqi2， XIN Yechun2. Coordinated Control Strategy for AC Fault Ride-through of MMC-HVDC Island Power Supply System [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(6): 93-99.
[7]	QI Bing， YE Xin， LI Bin， CHEN Songsong， LI Yuanfei， SHI Kun. Research on the Architecture of User-Side Power Internet of Things Considering IEC Standards [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(5): 92-99.
[8]	ZHOU Bin，ZHANG Weiguo， CUI Wenjia， MAO Dongyu， CHEN Zhong. Optimization Method for Electric Vehicle Charging/Discharging Considering Forewarning Load [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(4): 10-21.
[9]	ZHAO Wenhui， ZHANG Jiuyang， GAO Jiaoqian，SONG Yajun. Discharge Pricing Model of Electric Vehicles Considering Dynamic Electricity and Infinite Game [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(4): 30-37.
[10]	JI Huizheng， ZHANG Fan， KANG Chunlei，HAN Minxiao. Voltage Stability Control Strategy of Wind-Thermal-Bundled Power Generation and DC Transmission System [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(4): 126-132.
[11]	JIANG Hao， LIN Shunjiang， LU Yi， HE Sen. Load Probability Modeling and Scenario Generation for Electric Vehicle Charging Station Considering Time Correlation [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(2): 47-57.
[12]	ZHANG Yuwei, YANG Jun, WU Fuzhang, ZHAN Xiangpeng, LONG Xuemei, ZHANG Jun, XU Jian. Analysis on Disturbance Propagation of Charging Station Fault Considering Grid-Traffic Network Coupling [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2020, 41(1): 13-22.
[13]	LIAO Jiaqi， QIAN Kejun， FANG Hualiang， ZHOU Chengke， XU Yan. Key Technologies of Operation and Maintenance of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in Ubiquitous Power Internet of Things [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2019, 40(9): 20-26.
[14]	TAN Kai， LI Zhongwei， GUAN Yadong， YE Lin， TONG Weiming， ZHANG Baojun. Lightweight Key Management Scheme Based on Communication System of Electric Vehicle Charging Piles [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2019, 40(9): 73-81.
[15]	DU Lijia， JIN Xiaolong， HE Wei， MU Yunfei， JIA Hongjie， WEI Wei. A Tie-line Power Smoothing Control Method for an Office Building Microgrid by Scheduling Thermal Mass of the Building and Plug-in Electric Vehicles [J]. Electric Power Construction, 2019, 40(8): 26-33.